Python Best Practices

Type-First Development

Types define the contract before implementation. Follow this workflow:

• Define data models - dataclasses, Pydantic models, or TypedDict first

• Define function signatures - parameter and return type hints

• Implement to satisfy types - let the type checker guide completeness

• Validate at boundaries - runtime checks where data enters the system

Make Illegal States Unrepresentable

Use Python's type system to prevent invalid states at type-check time.

Dataclasses for structured data:

from dataclasses import dataclass from datetime import datetime

@dataclass(frozen=True) class User: id: str email: str name: str created_at: datetime

@dataclass(frozen=True) class CreateUser: email: str name: str

Frozen dataclasses are immutable - no accidental mutation

Discriminated unions with Literal:

from dataclasses import dataclass from typing import Literal

@dataclass class Idle: status: Literal["idle"] = "idle"

@dataclass class Loading: status: Literal["loading"] = "loading"

@dataclass class Success: status: Literal["success"] = "success" data: str

@dataclass class Failure: status: Literal["error"] = "error" error: Exception

RequestState = Idle | Loading | Success | Failure

def handle_state(state: RequestState) -> None: match state: case Idle(): pass case Loading(): show_spinner() case Success(data=data): render(data) case Failure(error=err): show_error(err)

NewType for domain primitives:

from typing import NewType

UserId = NewType("UserId", str) OrderId = NewType("OrderId", str)

def get_user(user_id: UserId) -> User: # Type checker prevents passing OrderId here ...

def create_user_id(raw: str) -> UserId: return UserId(raw)

Enums for constrained values:

from enum import Enum, auto

class Role(Enum): ADMIN = auto() USER = auto() GUEST = auto()

def check_permission(role: Role) -> bool: match role: case Role.ADMIN: return True case Role.USER: return limited_check() case Role.GUEST: return False # Type checker warns if case is missing

Protocol for structural typing:

from typing import Protocol

class Readable(Protocol): def read(self, n: int = -1) -> bytes: ...

def process_input(source: Readable) -> bytes: # Accepts any object with a read() method return source.read()

TypedDict for external data shapes:

from typing import TypedDict, Required, NotRequired

class UserResponse(TypedDict): id: Required[str] email: Required[str] name: Required[str] avatar_url: NotRequired[str]

def parse_user(data: dict) -> UserResponse: # Runtime validation needed - TypedDict is structural return UserResponse( id=data["id"], email=data["email"], name=data["name"], )

Module Structure

Prefer smaller, focused files: one class or closely related set of functions per module. Split when a file handles multiple concerns or exceeds ~300 lines. Use init.py to expose public API; keep implementation details in private modules (_internal.py ). Colocate tests in tests/ mirroring the source structure.

Functional Patterns

• Use list/dict/set comprehensions and generator expressions over explicit loops.

• Prefer @dataclass(frozen=True) for immutable data; avoid mutable default arguments.

• Use functools.partial for partial application; compose small functions over large classes.

• Avoid class-level mutable state; prefer pure functions that take inputs and return outputs.

Instructions

• Raise descriptive exceptions for unsupported cases; every code path returns a value or raises. This makes failures debuggable and prevents silent corruption.

• Propagate exceptions with context using from err ; catching requires re-raising or returning a meaningful result. Swallowed exceptions hide root causes.

• Handle edge cases explicitly: empty inputs, None , boundary values. Include else clauses in conditionals where appropriate.

• Use context managers for I/O; prefer pathlib and explicit encodings. Resource leaks cause production issues.

• Add or adjust unit tests when touching logic; prefer minimal repros that isolate the failure.

Examples

Explicit failure for unimplemented logic:

def build_widget(widget_type: str) -> Widget: raise NotImplementedError(f"build_widget not implemented for type: {widget_type}")

Propagate with context to preserve the original traceback:

try: data = json.loads(raw) except json.JSONDecodeError as err: raise ValueError(f"invalid JSON payload: {err}") from err

Exhaustive match with explicit default:

def process_status(status: str) -> str: match status: case "active": return "processing" case "inactive": return "skipped" case _: raise ValueError(f"unhandled status: {status}")

Debug-level tracing with namespaced logger:

import logging

logger = logging.getLogger("myapp.widgets")

def create_widget(name: str) -> Widget: logger.debug("creating widget: %s", name) widget = Widget(name=name) logger.debug("created widget id=%s", widget.id) return widget

Configuration

• Load config from environment variables at startup; validate required values before use. Missing config should fail immediately.

• Define a config dataclass or Pydantic model as single source of truth; avoid os.getenv scattered throughout code.

• Use sensible defaults for development; require explicit values for production secrets.

Examples

Typed config with dataclass:

import os from dataclasses import dataclass

@dataclass(frozen=True) class Config: port: int = 3000 database_url: str = "" api_key: str = "" env: str = "development"

@classmethod
def from_env(cls) -> "Config":
    database_url = os.environ.get("DATABASE_URL", "")
    if not database_url:
        raise ValueError("DATABASE_URL is required")
    return cls(
        port=int(os.environ.get("PORT", "3000")),
        database_url=database_url,
        api_key=os.environ["API_KEY"],  # required, will raise if missing
        env=os.environ.get("ENV", "development"),
    )

config = Config.from_env()

Optional: ty

For fast type checking, consider ty from Astral (creators of ruff and uv). Written in Rust, it's significantly faster than mypy or pyright.

Installation and usage:

Run directly with uvx (no install needed)

uvx ty check

Check specific files

uvx ty check src/main.py

Install permanently

uv tool install ty

Key features:

• Automatic virtual environment detection (via VIRTUAL_ENV or .venv )

• Project discovery from pyproject.toml

• Fast incremental checking

• Compatible with standard Python type hints

Configuration in pyproject.toml :

[tool.ty] python-version = "3.12"

When to use ty vs alternatives:

• ty

• fastest, good for CI and large codebases (early stage, rapidly evolving)

• pyright

• most complete type inference, VS Code integration

• mypy

• mature, extensive plugin ecosystem